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In recent years, the reduced protein diets balanced with crystalline amino acids (AA) for broiler chickens have been developed due to economic, environmental and bird welfare advantage. However, this reduced protein diet quite often results in adipose fat accumulation and sometimes compromises chicken performance. In practice, reduced protein diets should be formulated by experienced nutritionists.

Ideal amino acids profile

In reduced protein diets, digestible lysine concentration should be the first limiting AA. Based on the ideal AA profile, other essential AA concentrations including Methionine, Threonine, Valine, Isoleucine and Arginine need to be increased accordingly while the dietary lysine concentration is increased. When the dietary lysine concentration is fixed, increasing any other essential AA will not improve chicken performance but depressed the liter quality due to increased N excretion. On the other hand, when any other essential AA is deficient, Lysine becomes surplus and increases carcass fat. Figure 1 clearly showed that in reduced protein diets, when dietary Arginine and Histidine are deficient, it is very likely resulting in fatty carcass. Therefore, in recent protein diets, digestible Arginine and Histidine to digestible lysine ratios were increased to be 115% and 40%, respectively.

 

Figure 1. Effect of essential AA on abdominal fat content in reduced protein diets

Methionine sources

In broiler chicken feed ingredients, Methionine is the first limiting AA and practically be overused in chicken production. Figure 2 clearly showed that compared with DL-methionine and DL-HMTBA, L-Methionine significantly reduced fat composition in breast meat.

Figure 2 Effect of Methionine from different sources

The optimal digestible Lysine to apparent metabolizable energy (AME)

In reduced protein diets, if dietary AA is not balanced based on the ideal AA profile, the extra energy is required to excrete surplus energy. In contrast, if dietary AA is balanced based on the ideal AA profile, surplus energy will be accumulated in chicken body. Figure 3 is shown that reducing 100 kcal/kg in reduced protein diet significantly reduced abdominal fat in chicken carcass. It is suggested that the optimal Digestible Lysine to AME in reduced protein diets will be 100, 90, and 80% in the starter, grower, and finisher periods, respectively.

Figure 3. Effect of higher digestible Lysine to AME ratio on abdominal fat contents in chicken carcass

Supplementation of β-Mannanase

Soybean meal, canola meal and faba beans contain β-Mannan about 0.8, 0.4 and 0.4%, respectively. Β-Mannan can provoke the activity of innate immune system which leads to unnecessary energy cost for broiler chickens. Therefore, adding the exogenous β-mannanase to the reduced protein diets could save some energy cost and reduce carcass fat. Figure 4 is shown that in the reduced AME diets, adding β-Mannanase could further reduce the abdominal fat contents.

Figure 4. Effect of β-Mannanase on the abdominal fat contents in high and low AME diets

Tannic acid is a specific form of tannin and a type of polyphenol. It is defined in AAFCO as 582.20 for a source of flavour. Quebracho extract is a big complex polymer of tannin (MGM-S), specially for ruminant animals.

MGM-S has been approved to inhibit the growth and activity of methanogenic archaea in the rumen, which are responsible for producing methane as a byproduct of fermentation. It can alter the composition and activity of microbial populations, stimulating saliva production, favouring the growth of bacteria that produce less methane and increasing the proportion of propionate. Therefore, it can prevent the accumulation of lactic acid in the rumen and improve rumen pH stability, working together with marine-sourced calcium carbonate to reduce the risk of rumen acidosis.

MGM-S has been investigated for its ability to reduce the incidence of frothy bloat, which can occur when cattle consume rapidly fermentable feeds, such as high-grain diets in feedlot. MGM can help to reduce the stability of foam in the rumen by binding dietary proteins and maintain a more stable rumen environment, preventing the formation of gas bubbles and reducing the risk of bloat.

MGM-S also shows its anthelmintic effects due to its ability to disrupt the physiology and life cycle of parasites such as nematodes and coccidia.

Freshly milked dairy collected on-farm. Feed supplements like MGM-S are helping improve both milk composition and rumen health in today’s herds.

Adding 70 g MGM-S per day per cow could produce 1.2% more fat and increase milk protein by 3.3%. Adding 0.15% MGM-S to beef cattle diets for 93 days with initial body weight at 180 kg, achieved daily weight gain 180 grams and FCR was improved by 6.72% (8.18 vs. 7.63).

A study compiled by our Redox Animal Nutritionists.

Phosphorus (P) is an essential and expensive mineral for pigs, crucial for bone development, energy metabolism, and various physiological processes. The phosphorus requirement for pigs is dependent upon:

(1)   An adequate supply of P in an available form,
(2)   A suitable ratio of available Ca and P in the diet, and
(3)   The presence of adequate vitamin D.

Phosphorus in protein sources of animal origin is largely inorganic and has a high relative bioavailability (RBV). However, the RBV of P in meat and bone meal (MBM) is variable (67-90%). Phosphorus in inorganic supplements also varies in RBV (Table 1, Jondrevvill and Dourmad, 2006).  The RBV of MCP and MDCP is strongly affected by citric acids solubility and ammonium citrate solubility, respectively. Usually, the water solubility for MCP and MDCP is required to be greater than 80% and 50%, respectively.

Table 1. RBV and the digestibility coefficient of different inorganic P sources

In cereal grains and oil seed meals, about 60-75% of P is organically bound in in the form of phytate. The exogenous phytase supplementation can result in major improvement in RBV of phytate P. The higher temperature during pelleting of diets can reduce or destroy phytase activity and thermal stable phytase is available now to resist up to 85 ˚C pelleting temperature (Table 2).

Table 2. VTR phytase activity and heat stability (North Carolina State University)

To limit the loss of activity, Phytase must be made resistant to digestive proteases. After 2 h in contact with pepsin, VTR phytase retained about 93% of their initial activity (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The effect of pepsin on phytase activity.

A wide Ca-to-P ratio lowers P absorption and resulted in reduced growth and bone calcification. Ca and P requirements for maximizing bone strength are at least 0.1 percentage units higher than that maximal body weight gain. Although every 1-gram phytate P released by phytase could spare 1.33 grams Ca availability, a suggested ratio of total Ca to total P is between 1:1 and 1.25. It is noticed that the Ca in calcitic limestone is highly available, but Ca in dolomitic limestone is only 50 to 75% available.

An adequate vitamin D is necessary for proper metabolism of Ca and P, but a very high level of vitamin D can mobilize excessive amounts of Ca and P from bones.

A study compiled by our Redox Animal Nutritionists.

Glucose oxidase (GOD) is exogenously produced by specific fungi fermentation to oxidise β-D-Glucose into gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, consuming large amounts of oxygen.

GOD helps to extend shelf life of wet pet food, preventing rancid and spoilage caused by oxidation and microbial activity. In pet’s gut, it creates an environment that is less favourable for the growth of aerobic microorganisms including mycotoxins. Apart from gluconic acid, the hydrogen peroxides production could directly kill some virus, pathogens, and parasites. Therefore, it is considered as a new natural preservative and antioxidant.

As early as 1962, GOD was found in honey to produce gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, demonstrating its reputed wound-healing and antiseptic properties. GOD has been defined in the Association of American Feed Control officials (AAFCO) list as 70.3 and is widely used in food and animal production.  As a naturally derived enzyme, GOD can be marked as clean-label ingredient, which is increasingly popular with pet owners seeking natural preservatives in pet food products.

In general, adding 2000 U/kg dry matter or 200 g/MT dry matter GOD to pet food could be used as a preservative and antioxidant.

A study compiled by our Redox Animal Nutritionists.

Low protein or reduced protein diets have been widely used in pig industry to save protein sources and reduce nitrogen excretion. In reduced protein diets, amino acids (AA) balance is crucial for pig’s performance not to be compromised.  

Currently amino acids balance is achieved by the supplementation of crystalline L-Lysine, L-methionine, L-threonine, -L-tryptophan, L-Valine and L-Isoleucine based on the ideal protein profile. In practice, if only adding first 4 limiting amino acids to reduced protein diets, it may result in lower plasma valine, isoleucine, histidine, and arginine. Other amino acids such as lysine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan might become surplus and cannot be used by pigs (Figure 1). Histidine is the seventh limiting AA in typical diets fed to swine and may require supplementation in reduced protein diets (Figure 2). Among cereals, barley has the lowest histidine contends and therefore, barley-based diets may result in histidine deficiency.

Histidine is an integral component of a broad set of tissues including skin, bone, ligaments, and muscle. It is a component of haemoglobin and important constitute of dipeptides anserine and carnosine. High concentrations of carnosine and anserine have been found in the brain and muscles because of its high antioxidant activity.  It also stimulates the digestive secretion of gastrin, a hormone that is essential for digestion of dietary protein. Histidine deficiency could induce a decrease in amino acids oxidation and a decrease protein turnover.

Recommended standardized ileal digestible (SID) histidine to lysine ratio for pigs at 7 to 11 kg body weight from NRC (2012) is 0.34, which was based on growth performance and plasma histidine concentration. Recently, Cheng et al (2023) indicated that SID histidine to lysine between 0.35 and 0.41 in diets fed to nursery pigs at 7 to 11 kg body weight enhanced intestinal health and maximized concentrations of histidine-containing proteins.

Figure 1 Plasma amino acids concentration in standard and reduced protein diets.

Figure 2. The effect of further adding Valine, isoleucine and histidine on daily weight gain

A study compiled by our Redox Animal Nutritionists.

Wearing and tearing on horse joints in activities like racing, jumping, and heavy work, can result in arthritis or inflammation. Oral joint supplements are often used to support cartilage health, reduce inflammation and improving joint fluid.   

Glucosamine and chondroitin sulphate

These two supplements usually work synergistically to help prevent cartilage breakdown and support joint elasticity.

There are three forms of commercial glucosamine: glucosamine hydrochloride, glucosamine sulphate and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (NADG). Glucosamine hydrochloride is the most stable form and more effective to prevent the degeneration of cartilage. It is usually recommended that 12 grams of glucosamine and 2-6 grams of chondroitin per day in a 600 kg horse.

Activities such as racing, jumping, and heavy labor can lead to joint wear and tear in horses, often causing inflammation or arthritis.

Incorporating joint supplements into a horse’s diet can significantly improve joint health and mobility, particularly for those engaged in demanding activities. With the right combination of glucosamine, chondroitin sulfate, MSM, yucca extract, and UC-II, horse owners can help reduce inflammation, support cartilage, and maintain overall joint function, ensuring their horses remain healthy and active.

A study compiled by our Redox Animal Nutritionists.

Plant extracts are secondary plant metabolites, which are responsible for the odor and color of plants. Plant extracts are composed of more than a hundred components and in two different forms: liquid oil (essential oils) and solid powder. Plants extracts have been well considered to have anti-viral, antimicrobial, antioxidative, and anti-inflammatory effects.   

Probiotics are categorized into 3 main groups:

Bacillus-based probiotics are spore-forming and therefore thermal stable. Lactic acid producing bacteria are not spore-forming and survival is of concern during feed processing. It appears that lactic acid-producing probiotics are more beneficial for weanling pigs to help stabilize the gastrointestinal tract after weaning, whereas bacillus-based probiotics are more suitable for growing Ing-finishing pigs to increase the digestibility of nutrients in high fibre diets.

In piglets, Clostridium perfringens type C bacteria frequently cause necrotic enteritis that leads to mortality rates of up to 100%.  Antibiotics treatments have no long-term effect due to antibiotics resistance.

Recently a natural plant extract combined with the spore-forming clostridium butyricum probiotics (Suimet B+) has been developed to prevent Clostridium perfringens type A diarrhoea and type C bacterial infections in pig production.

The application of Suimet B+ to 2,2 00 sows significantly reduced the sow mortality in the late gestation under heat stress conditions (Figure 1). 5 to 7 days after using Suimet+, the mortality rate has been significantly reduced.

Figure 1. Effect of Suimet B+ on sows’ mortality

For weaning piglets, adding Suimet B+ for about 40 days could increase body weight by 17% and reduced the mortality rate from 3.5% to 0.5% (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Effect of Suimet B+ on body weight and the mortality rate of weaners (day 62)

 

A study compiled by our Redox Animal Nutritionists.

N-3 long-chain fatty acids including α-linolenic acid (ALA,18:3n-3), Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20: 5n-3 and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22;6n-3), are essential fatty acids for salmon growth and health. They can not be synthesized by fish body and need to be provided by fish meal and fish oil or algae supplements.

ALA serves as a precursor to other important N-3 long chain fatty acids such as EPA and DHA but the conversion rate in the human body is relatively low. It is important for maintaining heart health, reducing inflammation, and supporting brain function. Plant feed ingredients such as flaxseeds and canola oil contain high levels of ALA.

EPA plays a crucial role in reducing inflammation, supporting hearth, and maintain mental health. DHA is vital for brain and eye development and function. It also supports heart health and cognitive function. Both EPA and DHA can only be provided by fish meal, fish oil and certain algae supplements.


Salmon is naturally rich in EPA and DHA, key N-3 long-chain fatty acids. However, with modern salmon diets comprising only about 30% fish meal and fish oil, there is a potential risk of EPA and DHA deficiency in farmed salmon.

Salmon naturally contains high levels of EPA and DHA, making it a rich source of N-3 long-chain fatty acids. However, current diets for salmon only contain approximately 30% fish meal and fish oil, possibly resulting in EPA and DHA deficiency. In addition, recently it is reported that higher dietary concentration of N-3 long chain fatty acids might reduce sea lice infection and therefore, the requirement of N-3 long-chain fatty acids based on high level of plant-based ingredients needs to reconsider.

Based on the diet containing 35% fish meal and fish oil, Bou et al., 2017 indicated that extra 1.5% EPA or 2% DHA supplementation obtained best growth performance for salmon. Dietary concentration of 0.5% of EPA plus DHA is considered the lowest level for Atlantic salmon parr in Fresh water (Qian et al., 2020). Interestingly, the highest EPA:DHA ratio showed a lower number of wounded fish at the end of the grow-out period, implying that the partial replacement of fish oil with algae oil may achieve a balanced EPA:DHA ratio.

A study compiled by our Redox Animal Nutritionists.

Yeast supplements include live yeast, yeast cell wall (YCW), purified outer layer of cell wall components such as mannooligosaccharide (MOS) and β-glucans, purified inner layer of cell wall, and yeast extract products. It is generally accepted that yeast products can improve pig gut health via improved gut integrity and maintenance of a healthy microbiome, leading to increased nutrition absorption, and thus improved overall pig performance.

Live yeast refers to yeast cells that are still alive and active. It is often used to improve digestion and promote gut health for ruminant animals.

After autolysis (using the yeast’s own enzymes) or hydrolysis (using added exogenous enzymes), the yeast extract and cell walls are separated using centrifugation before being dried. Usually, the yeast extract via autolysis contains higher levels of yeast nucleotides. However, the yeast extract via hydrolysis is more applicable due to a low salt concentration.

The composition of autolyzed yeast (AY)

The composition of autolyzed yeast (AY) has been summarized as 3.5-3.9% nucleic acids, 11-22% of β-glucan, 3-12% MOS, and 30-41% crude protein. Adding 0.2-0.5% AY to pig diets could improve the performance and immune function of weaned and finished pigs.

The composition of hydrolysed yeast (HY)

The composition of hydrolysed yeast (HY) includes 3.5% nucleic acids, 22.43-23% β-glucan, 15-15.6% MOS, and 40-53.2% crude protein. The effective inclusion rates of HY in diets for the weaned, grower, and finisher periods are 0.1-0.2%, 0.05-1.0%, and 0.1%, respectively.

The yeast cell wall fraction is mainly composed of polysaccharides, making up 15 to 30% of the dry weight of the whole cell. The inner layer of the cell wall mainly contains β-D-glucans which is used as the organic mycotoxin binder. Supplemental levels of the mycotoxin binder are recommended around 0.1 to 0.2%

The outer layer of the yeast cell wall is made of MOS and β-glucans. Adding purified β-glucan to early weaned piglets dets showed protective effects against E Coli infection by reducing bacterial excretion and diarrhoea. The recommended dosage of β-glucan is 100-200 ppm or 100 -200 g/MT feed. The purified MOS can attach the bacterial surface, and then protect the colonization of bacteria in the intestinal tract. Supplementation of MOS in the range of 500 to 1000 ppm or 500 g to 1 kg /MT feed.

In addition, approximately 1-20% of total nitrogen in yeast are derived from nucleic acids. Nucleotides are significantly required by cell replication process, particularly intestinal epithelial and lymphoid cells. Nucleotides are also important in immune system maintenance and prevent oxidative stress. The purified Nucleotide inosine monophosphate (IMP) is commercially available and recommended supplemental levels are ranged 500 ppm to 1000 ppm or 500 to 1000 g/Kg feed.

A study compiled by our Redox Animal Nutritionists.

Yucca schidigera is an herbaceous plant of lily family, native to the deserts of the southwestern United State and northern Mexico. It contains two active compounds: at least 10.5% steroidal saponins and polyphenols. Saponins are similarly in structure to Glucocorticoids in animals.

Previously It was thought that the Yucca extract could bind ammonia and therefore reduce its emission from pets and other animals. However, ammonia concentrations in the gut are at least 100-fold greater than the concentrations of the yucca extract. Currently it is believed that the high circulating levels of Glucocorticoid in response to various oxidative stress including heat stress result in enhanced degradation of amino acids to generate ammonia and reduced protein synthesis in skeleton muscle.

Under conditions of the oxidative stress including heat stress, the Yucca extract can block the bonding of glucocorticoids to their receptors in cells. Thus, the yucca extract could alleviate the oxidative stress including heat stress and reduce ammonium emission in the stress situation (Table 1). When broiler chickens were housed at an average ambient temperature of 24˚C, dietary supplementation of Yucca extract (120 ppm and 180 ppm) did not affect the feed intake or body weight gain (Wu, 2018). However, in table 1, when the ambient temperature was naturally elevated from 27˚C to 37˚C, the Yucca supplementation improved body weight gain by 38-43% and FCR 46% to 52% compared with the control group.

Table 1 The effect of the addition of the Yucca extract on broiler chicken performance under the heat stress

 

Yucca saponins also have anti-protozoal activity by supressing protozoal infection of the intestine. It is reported that Yucca saponins could bind with cholesterol in protozoal cell membrane and destroy the integrity of the protozoal membrane. Coccidiosis is one of the main challenges for the worldwide poultry industry. Although coccidiostats are often rotated, the poultry industry is challenged by resistance of the Eimeria parasites to these treatments. In a recent trial conducted in the Europe, Kozlowski et al (2022) reported that both the anticoccidial and 500 g/Mt Yucca supplementation showed significant improvement in body weight (2150 g and 2058 g vs. 1998 g, Table 2)

It is now also reported that Yucca polyphenolics have anti-inflammatory activity and could prevent arthritis. The generation of reactive oxygen species such as nitric oxide is an important factor in the development of rheumatic arthritis. Yucca polyphenolics may inhibit nitric oxide production and prevent arthritis.

Table 2. The effect of supplemental Yucca extract on challenged chicken performance (d1-35)

A study compiled by our Redox Animal Nutritionists.